A microplate reader is a device that measures the optical properties of samples in a plate, which are the result of various reactions. Depending on the type of reaction, the reader can detect different forms of light, such as colour intensity, fluorescence, or luminescence, within a specific wavelength range.

Stylus profilometry is a direct form of profilometry that can be used to characterise the surface steps and the roughness of a material. A stylus profilometer drags a metal tip along the surface of a sample and measuring the distance traced by the stylus tip and its deflection along the vertical axis to register slight changes in the surface height of a material. This measurement is then converted into a cross-sectional plot and can be used to resolve steps as small as 10nm. Optical profilometry employs phase-shifting and/or vertical scanning interferometry to resolve the topology of complex 3D structures. The technique marries precision z-axis control with interference based techniques to resolve features from the angstrom to millimetre scale. The technique lends itself well to die-based measurements for ISO/QA and large area mapping.

Optical profilometry is a non-contact form of profilometry that can be used to characterise the surface steps and the roughness of a material. Optical profilometry employs phase-shifting and/or vertical scanning interferometry to resolve the topology of complex 3D structures. The technique marries precision z-axis control with interference-based techniques to resolve features from the angstrom to millimetre scale. The technique lends itself well to die-based measurements for ISO/QA and large area mapping. Profilometry is useful in process control steps such as measuring etch depth and lithography patterns.

3D scanning in nano fabrication context involves using high-resolution imaging techniques to map and reconstruct the surface morphology and topography of nanostructures.

X-ray scanning provides non-destructive imaging of complex internal structures, offering insight into deeply buried micro and nanostructures that may be unobservable with 2D imaging techniques such as optical microscopy, SEM and AFM. These capabilities, in particular micro and nanotomography, enable highly efficient examination of components during development or when analysing a fault. For life sciences, the equipment can be used to inspect the internal structure of biological specimens, such as bone, soft tissue, and biomedical devices with resolution down to 50 nm on some tools.

High speed cameras can provide slow motion footage of events by recording many thousands of frames per second and playing them back at normal speed. This is incredibly useful when monitoring things that are too quick to see, such as crack propagation when testing a device to destruction, or monitoring biological effects in slow motion.

Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid or gas. It is a technique used to examine chemical composition using the infrared (IR) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. FTIR spectroscopy flashes a sample with a series of broadband light of varying IR wavelengths. The resulting collection of spectra are then interpreted using the Fourier transform algorithm to indicate which parts of the spectrum were absorbed, and therefore, the chemical composition of the sample.

Vibrational spectroscopy is a spectroscopic method of identifying and classifying compounds based on the vibrations of their bonds. Depending on the type, vibrational spectroscopy either measures which frequencies of radiation are absorbed vs. transmitted or which types of light scattering occur. The fingerprint region of a vibrational spectroscopy output refers to the set of vibrations produced by a molecule due to the vibrations of its bonds. Each chemical bond corresponds to a specific vibrational energy that can be considered as a distinctive fingerprint, useful to determine compound structures, by comparing it with the fingerprints of known compounds.

Spectrofluorometry is a highly sensitive optical technique used to measure the fluorescence and phosphorescence of chemical and biological samples. A spectrofluorometer excites molecules with specific wavelengths of light and detects the emitted light to analyse molecular properties such as emission spectra, lifetimes, and quantum yields. This method is essential for characterising fluorescent compounds and understanding photophysical behaviour in research, materials science, and life sciences.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative technique that measures the composition and electronic state of the elements are on the surface of a sample. Spectra are obtained by irradiating a sample with a beam of X-rays while measuring the number of electrons of a specific energy that escape from the top 1 to 10 nm of the surface. XPS requires that the sample is exposed to ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions. Detection limits for most of the elements are in the range of parts per thousand. The analyser can also be used to check the uniformity of elemental composition across the top surface (line profiling or mapping) and as a function of depth into the sample (by ion beam etching). A number of additional film preparation tools are available within the same vacuum system.

Spectrophotometry is a method that measures the amount of light that is absorbed or transmitted by a sample as a function of the wavelength of that light. This measurement is a basic characterisation of the optical properties and can be applied to various forms of sample, such as thin film and liquids.

Variations on the theme of spectroscopy provide specific advantages for a range of uses – tweaking of the principle of observing the spectral output of materials in a variety of conditions can provide incredible amounts of information about the composition of a sample.

Photonics Characterisation refers to the systematic analysis and measurement of photonic devices and materials to evaluate their optical, thermal, and electrical performance. This process is essential for validating design specifications, identifying defects, and optimising functionality in applications such as optical communications, sensing, and integrated photonic circuits.

AC and DC characterisation are methods of measuring the electrical properties of a device or circuit. AC characterisation involves applying an alternating current (AC) signal and observing the response in terms of voltage, current, impedance, frequency, and other parameters. DC characterisation involves applying a direct current (DC) signal and observing the response in terms of resistance, power, efficiency, and other factors. Both methods are essential for understanding the performance and limitations of electronic devices and circuits, as the electrical properties often dictate whether the device is performing as expected. This is particularly important for electrical devices, MEMS, and solar cells, where a range of techniques is used to understand different aspects of these properties.

After designing, refining, and fabricating a microfluidic device, specialist equipment is required to accurately test whether it performs as desired.

Simulate and control environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, and vibration, validating how devices perform under stress. It supports accelerated life testing, reliability assessment, and compliance verification by replicating real-world operating environments in a controlled, repeatable manner.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of the most versatile characterisation methods. AFM performs scanning probe microscopy, scanning the surface of a material with a nanoscale cantilever, either through direct contact or through oscillating the cantilever just above the surface. When the cantilever is positioned in close proximity to the surface, forces between the tip and the sample lead to deflection of the cantilever, which is then measured with a laser signal reflected to a photodiode detector. The properties of the material surface such as topography, mechanical properties and tip-surface interaction forces can then be generated leading to an understanding of the material surface at the nanoscale. AFM has a wide range of applications including nanoscale materials and surface characterisation, electrical materials characterisation, interaction forces and mechanical properties mapping. Bio AFM is useful for pharmaceutical studies, immunology studies, biosensing applications, antibody/antigen binding studies, as well as intra-molecular studies such as protein folding.

Uses a quartz crystal to determine adsorption/desorption occurring at the solution/solid interface. It is typically used to study processes such as thin film deposition, layer by layer assembly and protein/bacteria/cell adhesion.

Observing the contact angle of a liquid on a samples surface can be a simple way of determining a samples hydrophobicity. To measure this many contact angle analysers use a high resolution camera to take an image, then use specific software to interpret the photo and provide the angle of contact. It is often used in conjunction with other surface analysis techniques to paint a complete picture of surface behaviour based on a sample’s surface chemistry and roughness.

Spectroscopic ellipsometry is an optical characterisation technique which provides a highly sensitive, contactless method for thin film measurements. Multiple light wavelengths and variable angles of polarised light are reflected off the surface of a sample. As this light reflects, its characteristics change depending on a number of the sample’s properties – it can therefore be used to characterise film thickness as well as composition such as roughness, crystalline nature, electrical conductivity and doping concentration.

Transmission and reflection measurement is the process of determining how much light passes through or bounces off a material. This can help to characterise the optical properties of the material, such as its refractive index, absorption coefficient, and reflectivity.

Laser Doppler Vibrometry (LDV) is a non-contact optical technique that measures the high frequency vibrations of surfaces by analysing the Doppler shift of laser light. A laser beam is focused onto a sample and the reflected light is compared to a reference beam. This provides information on the velocity, displacement, and phase of the surface vibrations without physical contact. LDV is useful in fields such as structural analysis, vibration testing, and acoustic research, as well as the characterisation of MEMS devices, piezoelectrics and surface acoustic wave devices.

An advantage of this technique over other probing techniques is that the passivation layer does not need to be removed before analysis can begin. Measurements can be performed without damaging the surface of the integrated circuit.

Measuring of the average size and the size distribution of particles within a sample. The result is provided as a size distribution. Different instrument can measure different size ranges and handle vastly different sample volumes.

Solid surface analysis is important for determining electrokinetic potential of macroscopic solids where streaming potential and currents are measured. The instrument is capable of acquiring single measurements at a specific pH or a titration, which can range for pH 2 to 12. With the availability of three mounts, a variety of samples ranging from solid surfaces to fabrics and powdered samples can be assessed. The electrokinetic analyser can measure surface potential (zeta potential) of smooth surfaces and Isoelectric point of surfaces can also be identified. Surface potential of metal plates, ceramic tiles, wafers and thin films can be measured with a clamping cell whereas for measurements of polymer membranes, filters textile fabrics and minerals and rocks require an adjustable gap cell. A cylindrical cell can be acquired for measuring zeta potential of powdered and granular samples.

Particle characterisation is the process of measuring and analysing the physical properties of particles, such as size, shape, surface area, porosity, density, and chemical composition. These properties can affect the behaviour and performance of particles in various applications, such as drug delivery, catalysis, nanotechnology, and environmental engineering. Particle characterisation techniques include microscopy, spectroscopy, light scattering, sedimentation, and thermal analysis.

A fibre diameter analyser is a device that measures the thickness of individual fibres in a sample. The analyser uses a laser beam to scan the fibres and a sensor to detect the amount of light that is scattered by them. The analyser then calculates the average fibre diameter, and the distribution diameters in a sample.

Tensile testing is a method of measuring the mechanical properties of a material under tension. It involves applying a gradually increasing force to a specimen and recording the deformation and failure behaviour. Tensile testing can provide information such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility, and fracture toughness of a material.

Textile testing is the process of evaluating the quality and performance of fabrics, yarns, and garments. Textile testing can include physical, chemical, and biological tests to measure various properties such as strength, durability, colorfastness, shrinkage, flammability, and resistance to microbes.

Thermal analysis encompasses a variety of techniques to assess the properties of materials as they change with temperature. Techniques such as Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) provide insights into thermal stability, composition, and transitions of materials. This category is essential for understanding the behaviour of materials under thermal stress, which is crucial for a wide range of applications in material science and engineering.

A physical property analysis is a process of measuring and evaluating the characteristics of a material or object. Examples of physical properties include density, hardness, colour, melting point, electrical conductivity, refractive index, and thermal expansion. A physical property analysis can help to identify, classify, compare, or select materials for various applications or purposes.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of the most versatile characterisation methods. AFM performs scanning probe microscopy, scanning the surface of a material with a nanoscale cantilever, either through direct contact or through oscillating the cantilever just above the surface. When the cantilever is positioned in close proximity to the surface, forces between the tip and the sample lead to deflection of the cantilever, which is then measured with a laser signal reflected to a photodiode detector. The properties of the material surface such as topography, mechanical properties and tip-surface interaction forces can then be generated leading to an understanding of the material surface at the nanoscale. AFM has a wide range of applications including nanoscale materials and surface characterisation, electrical materials characterisation, interaction forces and mechanical properties mapping. Bio AFM is useful for pharmaceutical studies, immunology studies, biosensing applications, antibody/antigen binding studies, as well as intra-molecular studies such as protein folding.

Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling provides significant advantages as a single-step, nanoscale prototyping method that doesn’t require a mask or resist. It is capable of performing: subtractive lithography in which atoms are locally milled away by physical sputtering with sub-10nm resolution; additive lithography in which materials are locally deposited with sub-10nm resolution; local ion implantation for fabrication of an etching mask for subsequent pattern transfer; and direct material modification by ion-induced mixing.FIB milling is a versatile technique with a wide range of applications including advanced materials development/characterisation; resist-free, high-resolution patterning of nanostructures; cross-sectional analysis of samples; sample preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and for atom probe analysis.

Developed by the University of Newcastle in collaboration with researchers from Cambridge University, the Newcastle Scanning Helium Microscope (SHeM) is an extremely surface-sensitive imaging technique. The tool, one of only three in the world, probes samples using neutral helium atoms instead of the more traditional light or electrons. Advantages include minimal sample preparation requirements (no charge reducing coatings required), a complete lack of sample damage as can occur under beams of electrons or laser light, and no penetration of the probe into the surface at all (extreme sensitivity to thin, transparent films).

Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (SNOM) combines imaging and spectroscopy in the VIS, IR and THz spectral regions at 10 nm spatial resolution. It is used during plasmonic analysis, nanoscale stress and strain testing, and observations of free charge carrier distribution.

He Ion Microscopy(HIM) combines milling of samples along with imaging at sub-nanometre resolution. Ion microscopy is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of ions (charged atoms or molecules) to image the surface or the interior of a sample. Ion microscopy can achieve high resolution, high sensitivity, and high depth of field.

The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) is a powerful imaging tool that uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons transmitted through an ultra-thin specimen to produce detailed, high-resolution images at the atomic scale. Unlike light microscopes, TEMs exploit the short wavelength of electrons to achieve magnifications exceeding 1 million times, revealing internal structures, crystal lattices, and chemical compositions with nanometer precision. Operating in a vacuum, TEMs are essential in fields like materials science, nanotechnology, and biology, enabling researchers to visualize and analyse the fine architecture of cells, nanoparticles, and complex interfaces.

A confocal microscope is a type of optical microscope that uses a pinhole to eliminate out-of-focus light and enhance the image quality. It can also be combined with fluorescence microscopy, a technique that uses fluorescent molecules to label and visualise specific structures or molecules in a sample. By using a fluorescence detector, a confocal microscope can record the emitted fluorescence from the sample, which provides more contrast and specificity in the images. A confocal microscope records point-by-point scans of a sample to create two-dimensional images. Three-dimensional images can be created by combining the images of multiple planes, taken by repeating the scanning technique but varying the z-axis.

A fundamental form of sample surface topology analysis. Optical microscopy uses a series of lenses to focus light that is reflected from or passed through a sample. Various forms of light and magnification can be used to visualise the sample.

DHM relies on computing power to interpret an interference pattern produced by shining a laser onto a sample to produce a three dimensional image.

A laser beam induced current (LBIC) is a technique that measures the photocurrent generated by a semiconductor device when it is irradiated by a laser beam. LBIC can be used to characterise the spatial distribution of defects, recombination properties, and quantum efficiency of solar cells and photodetectors. LBIC is a non-destructive method that can examine individual devices within large arrays by scanning the laser beam over the device surface and recording the current as a function of position. For electrical devices, MEMS, and solar cells, the electrical properties are often what dictates whether the device is performing as expected. As such there are a range of ways to understand different aspects of these properties.

Metallography, is a specialised field that utilises microscopes designed to analyse and inspect the microstructure of metallic samples. These microscopes differ from standard ones as they use reflected light to illuminate the sample, allowing for the examination of non-transparent materials. With high-resolution optics, they can reveal details such as grain size, inclusion content, and porosity, which are critical for understanding the material properties and ensuring quality in metallurgical processes.